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Abstract
A primary concern regarding training large language models (LLMs) is whether
they abuse copyrighted online text. With the increasing training data scale and
the prevalence of LLMs in daily lives, two problems arise: \textbf{1)} false
positive membership inference results misled by similar examples; \textbf{2)}
membership inference methods are usually too complex for end users to
understand and use. To address these issues, we propose an alternative
\textit{insert-and-detect} methodology, advocating that web users and content
platforms employ \textbf{\textit{unique identifiers}} for reliable and
independent membership inference. Users and platforms can create their
identifiers, embed them in copyrighted text, and independently detect them in
future LLMs. As an initial demonstration, we introduce \textit{\textbf{ghost
sentences}} and a user-friendly last-$k$ words test, allowing end users to chat
with LLMs for membership inference. Ghost sentences consist primarily of unique
passphrases of random natural words, which can come with customized elements to
bypass possible filter rules. The last-$k$ words test requires a significant
repetition time of ghost sentences~($\ge10$). For cases with fewer repetitions,
we designed an extra perplexity test, as LLMs exhibit high perplexity when
encountering unnatural passphrases. We also conduct a comprehensive study on
the memorization and membership inference of ghost sentences, examining factors
such as training data scales, model sizes, repetition times, insertion
positions, wordlist of passphrases, alignment, \textit{etc}. Our study shows
the possibility of applying ghost sentences in real scenarios and provides
instructions for the potential application.